FINANCING OF EDUCATION IN JAPAN.   Term Paper ID:26293 Click to get this paper

Essay Subject: Examines various private & public funding approaches which reflect high quality & quanity of nation's educational offerings.... More...

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Paper Abstract: Examines various private & public funding approaches which reflect high quality & quanity of nation's educational offerings. Paper Introduction: Japanese society's ability and willingness to pay for schooling is the single most important factor that affects the quality and quantity of its education system. Japan is a learning society; education plays an important role in the Japanese self-identity. The excess demand for education that cannot be met by the public sector is readily met by Japan's private sector. In Japan, children are only required to complete nine years of compulsory education, from age six through age fifteen. Compulsory education in Japan, like in the United States, is free. Public schools are completely funded by the government, mostly the Ministry of Education, Science, and Culture, commonly known as the Ministry of Education. Funding for compulsory education in Japan differs from the Text of the Paper: The entire text of the paper is shown below. However, the text is somewhat scrambled. We want to give you as much information as we possibly can about our papers and essays, but we cannot give them away for free. In the text below you will find that while disordered, many of the phrases are essentially intact. From this text you will be able to get a solid sense of the writing style, the concepts addressed, and the sources used in the research paper. is a learning society education required to complete nine years ofcompulsory education of Education Funding for compulsory education for compulsory schools is shared bythe national prefectural and municipal receive so that gross inequities do construction Likewise the prefecturessubsidize the municipalities highly centralized under the generalsupervision for Education The Ministry ofEducation centralisedsystem has made demands upon students level each prefecture has a member board ofeducation These boards run by localgovernments municipalities and prefectures although a few the Ministry of Education and makerecommendations astrong socialist-oriented union and are generally higher paid All public school teachers have the same to rural areas and from rich to equipping schools Theadministration allocates resources according to need often givingpreference Japan is notcompulsory educational access reflects the results tenpercent in Japan compared to percent educational standards in Japan are not apparently achievedthrough exceptionally as essential for their children's future success Most of the and Welfare operates a system of he or she is required to Most teachers employ those accompanying the textbook Duke experience showsthat education need not critical period for Japanese youth becausethey are collegegiven the fact that certain top high schools are feeders the upper secondary level in Japan is highlydifferentiated public and private uppersecondary schools One of the tracks available college is the technical college Theseschools the national universities with the most prestigiousbeing Tokyo schools is highlycompetitive students must score impressively on entrance entrance examinations on the first try Undeterredby Benjamin p Lastly Japan's educational system includes student's years of compulsory education his or for all students seeking entry into public thus be seen as the other side of the coin' is the reverse of theeducation system in the United States ofCalifornia Berkeley are equally prestigious In Japan with at the higher levels The Japanese government and Benjamin p However the majority of private institutions feederhigh school The high school with which is a common means of start-up forprivate schools in Benjamin p As nonprofit organizations private education is a profitableindustry the creation of new schools is are small-scale labor intensive enterprises Also privateschools those schools that diversify do p Nevertheless manyprivate universities charge exorbitant fees The the private nonprofit education institutions that students can supplement their week itis estimated that to percent of all junior United States fosters the belief ofrugged entrepreneurialism industry To the Japanese the romanticview of large portion of Japan's topleaders in as examination hell the period when the Japanese youth focusesall to first understand their culturalbeliefs The Japanese are preoccupied the individual but also for the nation Throughout the anddisciplined study and work habits OERI p The Japanesebelieve that notion that worker harder and longer is immense total enrollments at least one hasmore examinations for senior high schoolsand college students supplement their incomesby teaching at jukus The to enter a prestigious college Nearly p Because theentrance examinations weigh so heavily in the flourishes in Japan because theJapanese student cannot possibly learn of the limited number of exams for post-secondary schools Once a student enters an academic portion of students areenrolled in jukus to supplement p Because the Japanese cultural values ofsupport and harmony reign cohorts regardless of differences in academic abilities The willingness of Japanesefamilies to make financial sacrifices for their children's team defeat AsWhite observes Failure is most of making sure their children average Japanese family is consideredmiddle-class by American standards innuclear families in which the economic stability andcultural beliefs that value the subject of recent reforms community In the wake of therecent Struggle p Even Japaneseintellectuals have expressed concern about the overeducation statement that their countrymenplaced too much If the quality of higher education isto be the national government Excess demand exists because of the of academic achievement Historically the major corporations and of privateschools has emerged to serve the excess demand examinations without the aid of jukus are nationalbudget because of the presence of a strong private education the quality and quantity of education in Japan must analyzeboth NewYork Garland Duke B The Japanese education reform proposals August In New York St Martin's Press Lynn R Educational achievement and Smith T Education in states and nations Washington National Martin'sPress The struggle to create creativity June Economist important factor that affects the met by the public sector is readily funded by the government mostly the Ministry of In America schools are funded by local their funds from taxes andother sources The national government equalizes allowancesfor educational personnel at compulsory schools also providessubsidies to private education institutions and municipal levels TheMinistry of Education relies on standing educationinstitutions and regulating the establishment of private schools As aresult characterized by long school days and school Prefectures primarily have authority over upper secondaryschools Most of member boardof education These boards operate schools in their teacher salariesare an important component salaries of businesspeople and engineers with the samelevel of education the same level of income p The same policy for transferring facilities is a hallmark of Japan's budget on education In the share of totalpublic was less than percent compared to percent for the ranges from kindergartenthrough miscellaneous adult schools Kindergartens are based on parental income Kindergarten enrollment is gearedfor on the ability of parents to pay Once elementary school level children are tested withfrequency the majority of youths finish lower secondary school in the presence ofstrong labour-market incentives James and eventually attend but the type ofhigh school of junior high school for some the entranceexaminations for higher education Other students attend specializedvocational programs two orthree-year programs of study Most of the engineering Japan has a wide range of public and g Keio Waseda and Doshisha inJapan is pressure from a group known to cramming for exams Ronin sometimes constitute as much as disabilities Miscellaneous schools are extremelydiverse offering a wide range of are public institutions and relatively few slots areavailable Likewise the The private sector meetsthe excess demand at James and Benjamin pp The universities like Harvard and Princeton are amongAmerica's most of thegovernment's policy of educating the masses at the lower secondary junior colleges and universities in Japan are vertical integration system one school starts another schoolmight establish a college or university which the high secondary schools inJapan were established as a not reluctant to lend funds on favorable terms to finance to owners James and Benjamin p New private education more expensive laboratory sciences The majorityof private colleges and disparities in resources and quality indicators and by raising thetuition at public universities to by many Japanese families Commercial workbooks the daytime and evening Privately runschools of various shapes p In Japan a prestigious education is of self-made men and women who Japan but they are the onlythose who have demonstrated their understand the willingness of the Japanese of formidable dimensions OERI p The commitment to education to Japanese life Respect for society and the established If a child has difficulty then heor she ubiquitous private for-profit schools found inJapan Jukus range such as calligraphy music and the arts The academic jukus chains and have made many anentrepreneur affluent Beauchamp p Thousands enter jukus willingly partly because alltheir friends attend In fact parents enroll their children in an academic jukuas early that will be useful to students when they schools According toGoya the entrance examinations for academic four students Passing' scores can be as low as is geared for the high-achiever Third-year students are studying third-year English becausethey are third-year students failed or skipped ahead a grade White p Students move individual failure it isattributed to peers and parents thus a will often sequester herself at home forweeks ashamed their children's welfare The ability of Japanese parents Very fewJapanese children are born to two or fewer children The existence of education Despite the existence of strong public and private initiatives since the Occupation period pp and information technology employers want graduates to Japanese public is likewise concerned the Japanese inthe the call for reform byproposing sweeping changes some involving Japan is controlled by the laws of supply anddemand The alone virtually no consideration is given togrades these schools Because only a limited number ofstudents jukus fulfill this need Parents cognizant that their children as possible Public education is a significant portion of the costs EducationSince A documentary study pp Armonk NY M a new Americanidentity Routledge New York Goya Susan April NY M E Sharpe James CO Westview OERI Japan Study Team January Japanese education today Japan's success Educational Policy Vol No pp Stephens Japanese society's ability and willingness to pay plays animportant role in the Japanese from age six through age fifteen Compulsoryeducation in Japan in Japan differs from the governments Prefectures areabout the size of small or medium not occur Thenational subsidies cover a portion of for certain items such as of the Ministry of Education which oversees is responsible for the entire which would be thought unacceptablein many are responsible for operating schools licensingteachers paying are national James and Benjamin to the prefectural boards regarding the appointment anddismissal of teachers than theirWestern counterparts starting salaries payarrangements within each prefecture Thus poor areaswithin the prefecture uniformity and general for disadvantaged areas This process of tracking based onentrance examinations scores Compared with other countries in the United States Whenexamining public expenditure per student as high public expenditure p The school kindergartens in Japan are privately operated and chargetuition even the daycare centers These centers accept children attendelementary school These schools are free and p The lower secondary school be compulsory nor need it be provided publicly tobe required to pass entrance examinations just into prestigiouspost-secondary institutions the question of one's Most students attend general academic schools whosecurriculas focus for students who graduate from uppersecondary generally offer five-year programs Students and Kyoto Private universities are not as high quality examinations forthe few slots available One reason that failure many of the ronin drop out both special schools andmiscellaneous schools Special schools provide herprimary concern is entrance into prestigious high schools and high schools many ofwhich act from whatthe government decided it would provide The government left In America after World War II thefederal government met the fewexceptions the private colleges and universities represent the lessdesirable alternatives legally requires such schools to operate asnonprofit in Japan are secular The characteristic mode of establishment for the university is affiliated willthen have preferential entrance status for Japan because of the substantial revenues that theseschools generate schools are required to reinvesttheir earnings a logical response to the questionof what to tend to specialize in low-cost not venture into teaching a wide rangeof disciplines national government hastried to address this situation by providing Japanhas a robust industry of private for-profit school learning Nationaleducational radio and television programs broadcast high students attendprivate afterschool classes at least two Americans believe that education is important but not absolutely essentially the self-made man or woman would seem government and in business hail from a handful of his or her creative energy on with the discipline of hard work child's compulsory schooling he or she is incorporation of these traits makes the ultimate key toeducational success underpins the popularity of jukus than students nationwide OERI p Jukusfulfill both an academic universities Jukus are an important component of the Japaneseeconomy average Japanese parent considers juku fees anecessary part of all students whoaspire to national university must spend experience of students mostschool teachers in Japan teach to all that is needed to pass his orher entrance examinations slots If there are freshman slots available and students apply high school the amount of learningthat actually takes place as their schooling Japanese teachers havelittle incentive to make sure in the classroom as well failure of a student to advance into a prestigious education TheJapanese child can rely on the total support keenly felt by the mother study hard after school placing the child in Family incomes are rarely destabilizedby factors father works and the mother is learning make it possible for AsBeauchamp and Rubinger note the Japanese are consumed with doubtsand Asian financial crisis business leaders have expressed the of society given the fact that an increasing emphasis on educational background Marshall p improved it is essential for government authorities to strive toincrease largesupply of students desiring entry into bureaucracies in Japan employgraduates from a handful The compulsory schoolsystem is incapable of preparing students for all too willing to paythe often exorbitant expense industry This industry is fueled by funds public and private sectors References Beauchamp E Introduction Japanese education School New York Praeger Feinberg W EdwardBeauchamp and James Vardaman Jr Eds Japanese in Japan Armonk NY M E Sharpe Marshall B Center for Education Statistics Rohlen T June pp White M The Japanese educational challenge quality and quantity ofits education system Japan met by Japan'sprivate sector In Japan children are only Education Science and Culture commonly known as the Ministry taxes In Japan the financial responsibility the funds that the prefectures andmunicipalities and special schools teaching equipment and school Funding decisions in Japan are advisory councils with themost powerful being the Central Council of the Japanese commitment to education the highly years with minimal school holidays At the prefectural the public high schools are funded and jurisdictions selecttextbooks from the list approved by of education funding Japanese teachers have and has been rising compared to other occupations Feinberg p This facilitatestransferring teachers from urban teachers to achieve equity withinprefectures holds for staffing maintaining and compulsoryeducation system However by the high school level which in expenditure devoted to current education spending was almost United States Phelps and Smith As Lynn notes the high are non-compulsory butmost parents view them children aged three to six The Japanese Ministry of Health a child reaches six years of age extensive use of commercially prepared tests is routine andgo on to non-compulsory forms of education The Japanese Benjamin p Thelower secondary level marks a the student enters is almost as important as entering earlier White p Schooling in Tuition is charged at both students in these institutionsare female An alternative to junior private four-year universities The top schools are haveexcellent reputations Admission to the top-ranking as ronin Ronin are those studentswho fail to pass their percent of a university's applicant pool James and course in vocational and practicaltraining Throughout a Japanese government is not compelled to providespace both the secondary and post-secondary levels Theprivate sector can situation in higher education Japan elite although some public universities like University level butproviding access for only a relatively small group established byreligious organizations mostly Christian James Forinstance a university might provide venture capital to establish a school can feedgraduates into Vertical integration result of vertical integration from anaffiliated school James and new ventures During a period of excess demand when institutions are relatively easy to establishbecause they universities in Japan teach only a single subject even whencompared to national universities OERI equalize the cost differential tostudents In addition to aresupplied by publishers of Japanese textbooks homework materials designedso and sizes offer classes seven days a absolutely essential forsecuring affluence In contrast the armed with a uniquevision have become captains of exception and often of an oldergeneration Stephens p A worthiness by enduring what the Japaneserefer to to provide privatefunds for education it is necessary is important in the Confucian andBuddhist heritage not only for order prizing group goals aboveindividual interests diligence self-criticism and well-organized must simply work harder and longer The from large corporations to family-run businesses Themajor corporate chains have either provide remedial instruction or specialassistance in preparation for entrance of Japaneseschool teachers professors and attendance is considered mandatory if astudent hopes as first or second grade Goya take their tests Private educational enterprise high schools are merelytests of elimination because percent p The primary focus is on the rigorous which is why remedialjukus are widespread Knowing that a significant not because they have passed second-year oreven first-year English through the elementary and middle-school years withthe rest of their the group This further explains the failure is considered more of a to go out p The Japanese family assumes thepsychological burden to finance supplemental education isan important consideration The single mothers children are mostly raised alarge middle-class society characterized by Japan's education system has been The push for reform hasbeen spearheaded by the Japanese business be ableto be creative self-starters The street overwhelmingly agreed with the education funding such asproviding more public universities most prestigious universities are public institutions fundedby teacher recommendations or other evidence will qualify for the national universities a system cannot hope to pass their collegeentrance not a substantial portion of Japan's of schooling Thus anyexamination of E Sharpe Beauchamp E and Rubinger R Education in Japan Japanese education Hardly known hardfacts Education Digest pp Higher E and Benjamin G Public policy and privateeducation in Japan Washington U S Department of Education Phelps R M Japan and education New York St for schooling isthe single most self-identity The excess demand foreducation that cannot be like in the United States is free Public schools arecompletely systemused in the United States states The various governmentalentities that finance education in Japan raise the cost of salaries and salaries andallowances of teachers In addition the national government the administrationof education at the national prefectural official system of educationincluding establishing curricula operating national other developed countries Stephens p The Japaneseeducation system is teacher salaries and providing financial assistance tomunicipalities p At the municipal level each municipality has a or Teachers have considerable prestige in Japan and for teachers in Japan are higherthan the starting teachers can be assigned to anyschool in the prefecture at high standards are thedefining principles Rohlen of equalizing access tohigh-quality instruction and the Japanese government does not spenda large amount of its a percent of gross domesticproduct GDP Japan's proportion ladder of education in Japan publicly-operated kindergartens charge tuition albeitthe fees under the age of six Feesare based provide six years of generaleducation Even at the completes the Japanese child's compulsoryeducation The vast acquired by a large proportion of the population to attend high school Granted almost all Japanese students future is broached asearly as the second year on the subject matter needed to pass schools is the junior college These colleges provide mostly male studyto become middle-level technicians in fields such as astheir public counterparts but some e the competition for higher education is so intense of school and devote their effortsfull-time facilities for studentswith physical and mental ultimatelyprestigious colleges or universities As mentioned above the top-rankinguniversities as feeder schools to the top colleges major gaps which the private sector promptly filled excess demand for education by funding publicuniversities Private Private schools are a profitable enterprise in Japan because organizations About percent of the private primary most Japanese privateschools is the its graduates Or a high More than percent of the private Cognizant of the profitability of such schools bankersare do with net earnings that cannot be distributed areas of instruction such as law andteaching as opposed to They are sometimes known as one-third' universitiesbecause of the financial aid to students whoattend private institutions mostly student loans schools and instruction Hometutors are employed mathematics and otherschool-related material during to three times a week for twohours each time Duke for success American business history isreplete with stories largely irrelevant Suchpeople do exist in selectuniversities These universities function as gatekeepers admitting meeting the requirements for entry intotheir schools of choice To andstudy Japan is a learning society taught specificvalues attitudes and habits that are fundamental it possible for anystudent to master the school curriculum in Japanese society Juku is the name for the and nonacademic need The nonacademic jukusprovide instruction in subjects many are part of nation-wide the family budget Most Japanese students one to four years in a jukucramming for tests Many the exams that is they teach subjectmatter just by going to regular the test is given toeliminate a result of teaching is questionable TheJapanese curriculum that all students learn As Goya points out as in society theJapanese student is never slot at anational university is not attributed to of his or her teacher whotakes the blame upon herself and a juku is considered mandatory for parents trulyconcerned about such as unemployment drugs divorce and poverty a homemaker Most Japanese families have the Japanese toexpend large sums of money on private apparently bent on the most significant reform of their educationalsystem need forcollege graduates who are knowledgeable about modern finance globalaffairs number of college graduates are unable tofind jobs The The Ministry of Education has responded to public spending Higher Education p Education funding in these universities Entrance isbased on examination results of select universities exerting further pressureon students to apply to rigorous entranceexaminations for post-secondary schools so and enroll their young children at as earlyan age from a stable middle-class societywilling to bear since In Edward Beauchamp and James Vardaman Jr Eds Japanese Japan and the pursuit of Education Since Adocumentary study pp Armonk Learning to be modern Japanese politicaldiscourse on education Boulder Differences that make a difference Explaining New York Free Press is a learning society education required to complete nine years ofcompulsory education of Education Funding for compulsory education for compulsory schools is shared bythe national prefectural and municipal receive so that gross inequities do construction Likewise the prefecturessubsidize the municipalities highly centralized under the generalsupervision for Education The Ministry ofEducation centralisedsystem has made demands upon students level each prefecture has a member board ofeducation These boards run by localgovernments municipalities and prefectures although a few the Ministry of Education and makerecommendations astrong socialist-oriented union and are generally higher paid All public school teachers have the same to rural areas and from rich to equipping schools Theadministration allocates resources according to need often givingpreference Japan is notcompulsory educational access reflects the results tenpercent in Japan compared to percent educational standards in Japan are not apparently achievedthrough exceptionally as essential for their children's future success Most of the and Welfare operates a system of he or she is required to Most teachers employ those accompanying the textbook Duke experience showsthat education need not critical period for Japanese youth becausethey are collegegiven the fact that certain top high schools are feeders the upper secondary level in Japan is highlydifferentiated public and private uppersecondary schools One of the tracks available college is the technical college Theseschools the national universities with the most prestigiousbeing Tokyo schools is highlycompetitive students must score impressively on entrance entrance examinations on the first try Undeterredby Benjamin p Lastly Japan's educational system includes student's years of compulsory education his or for all students seeking entry into public thus be seen as the other side of the coin' is the reverse of theeducation system in the United States ofCalifornia Berkeley are equally prestigious In Japan with at the higher levels The Japanese government and Benjamin p However the majority of private institutions feederhigh school The high school with which is a common means of start-up forprivate schools in Benjamin p As nonprofit organizations private education is a profitableindustry the creation of new schools is are small-scale labor intensive enterprises Also privateschools those schools that diversify do p Nevertheless manyprivate universities charge exorbitant fees The the private nonprofit education institutions that students can supplement their week itis estimated that to percent of all junior United States fosters the belief ofrugged entrepreneurialism industry To the Japanese the romanticview of large portion of Japan's topleaders in as examination hell the period when the Japanese youth focusesall to first understand their culturalbeliefs The Japanese are preoccupied the individual but also for the nation Throughout the anddisciplined study and work habits OERI p The Japanesebelieve that notion that worker harder and longer is immense total enrollments at least one hasmore examinations for senior high schoolsand college students supplement their incomesby teaching at jukus The to enter a prestigious college Nearly p Because theentrance examinations weigh so heavily in the flourishes in Japan because theJapanese student cannot possibly learn of the limited number of exams for post-secondary schools Once a student enters an academic portion of students areenrolled in jukus to supplement p Because the Japanese cultural values ofsupport and harmony reign cohorts regardless of differences in academic abilities The willingness of Japanesefamilies to make financial sacrifices for their children's team defeat AsWhite observes Failure is most of making sure their children average Japanese family is consideredmiddle-class by American standards innuclear families in which the economic stability andcultural beliefs that value the subject of recent reforms community In the wake of therecent Struggle p Even Japaneseintellectuals have expressed concern about the overeducation statement that their countrymenplaced too much If the quality of higher education isto be the national government Excess demand exists because of the of academic achievement Historically the major corporations and of privateschools has emerged to serve the excess demand examinations without the aid of jukus are nationalbudget because of the presence of a strong private education the quality and quantity of education in Japan must analyzeboth NewYork Garland Duke B The Japanese education reform proposals August In New York St Martin's Press Lynn R Educational achievement and Smith T Education in states and nations Washington National Martin'sPress The struggle to create creativity June Economist important factor that affects the met by the public sector is readily funded by the government mostly the Ministry of In America schools are funded by local their funds from taxes andother sources The national government equalizes allowancesfor educational personnel at compulsory schools also providessubsidies to private education institutions and municipal levels TheMinistry of Education relies on standing educationinstitutions and regulating the establishment of private schools As aresult characterized by long school days and school Prefectures primarily have authority over upper secondaryschools Most of member boardof education These boards operate schools in their teacher salariesare an important component salaries of businesspeople and engineers with the samelevel of education the same level of income p The same policy for transferring facilities is a hallmark of Japan's budget on education In the share of totalpublic was less than percent compared to percent for the ranges from kindergartenthrough miscellaneous adult schools Kindergartens are based on parental income Kindergarten enrollment is gearedfor on the ability of parents to pay Once elementary school level children are tested withfrequency the majority of youths finish lower secondary school in the presence ofstrong labour-market incentives James and eventually attend but the type ofhigh school of junior high school for some the entranceexaminations for higher education Other students attend specializedvocational programs two orthree-year programs of study Most of the engineering Japan has a wide range of public and g Keio Waseda and Doshisha inJapan is pressure from a group known to cramming for exams Ronin sometimes constitute as much as disabilities Miscellaneous schools are extremelydiverse offering a wide range of are public institutions and relatively few slots areavailable Likewise the The private sector meetsthe excess demand at James and Benjamin pp The universities like Harvard and Princeton are amongAmerica's most of thegovernment's policy of educating the masses at the lower secondary junior colleges and universities in Japan are vertical integration system one school starts another schoolmight establish a college or university which the high secondary schools inJapan were established as a not reluctant to lend funds on favorable terms to finance to owners James and Benjamin p New private education more expensive laboratory sciences The majorityof private colleges and disparities in resources and quality indicators and by raising thetuition at public universities to by many Japanese families Commercial workbooks the daytime and evening Privately runschools of various shapes p In Japan a prestigious education is of self-made men and women who Japan but they are the onlythose who have demonstrated their understand the willingness of the Japanese of formidable dimensions OERI p The commitment to education to Japanese life Respect for society and the established If a child has difficulty then heor she ubiquitous private for-profit schools found inJapan Jukus range such as calligraphy music and the arts The academic jukus chains and have made many anentrepreneur affluent Beauchamp p Thousands enter jukus willingly partly because alltheir friends attend In fact parents enroll their children in an academic jukuas early that will be useful to students when they schools According toGoya the entrance examinations for academic four students Passing' scores can be as low as is geared for the high-achiever Third-year students are studying third-year English becausethey are third-year students failed or skipped ahead a grade White p Students move individual failure it isattributed to peers and parents thus a will often sequester herself at home forweeks ashamed their children's welfare The ability of Japanese parents Very fewJapanese children are born to two or fewer children The existence of education Despite the existence of strong public and private initiatives since the Occupation period pp and information technology employers want graduates to Japanese public is likewise concerned the Japanese inthe the call for reform byproposing sweeping changes some involving Japan is controlled by the laws of supply anddemand The alone virtually no consideration is given togrades these schools Because only a limited number ofstudents jukus fulfill this need Parents cognizant that their children as possible Public education is a significant portion of the costs EducationSince A documentary study pp Armonk NY M a new Americanidentity Routledge New York Goya Susan April NY M E Sharpe James CO Westview OERI Japan Study Team January Japanese education today Japan's success Educational Policy Vol No pp Stephens If this paper is not what you are looking for, you can search again: Search for: or Click here 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